Why do horses have hooves? This question should be addressed to evolution, which “took the trouble” to create keratinized endings from the toes of some species so that animals could quickly move long distances, withstand heavy loads on their legs and different ground temperatures, walk over rough terrain, and prevent slipping. This article is not devoted to a historical excursion into the history of the origin of species, but to the anatomical structure of a horse’s hooves and methods of proper care for them.

Shape and size

The appearance and geometry of the hoof are directly influenced by the distinctive characteristics of horses that are inherited, living conditions, and characteristics of the breed. For example, heavy horses have a wider hoof, while thoroughbred horses have a narrow hoof with a noticeable sharp bevel.

The exterior of the animal, the position and length of the front and hind legs, as well as the movements that the horse performs most often are important in the formation of the horn base.

Did you know? The shape of a horse's hoof changes constantly throughout its life. If you radically change the conditions of detention, then the form can also change.

The formation of hooves begins at a young age, so it is important to provide horses with those conditions under which deformation of the horny base is excluded, and its correct and correct development is observed.
For example, wet soil affects the formation of wide hooves in horses, while hard soil causes narrow hooves. The height of the hoof part depends on the ground and distance of travel: in wild horses it is lower, with a short heel and excellent shock absorption.

The weight of the horse's body is distributed with different loads on the thoracic and pelvic parts of the limbs (8:5), therefore the geometry of the hooves of the front and hind legs is always different.

Front hoof

When caring for horses, you should take into account some geometric and proportional features that the animals' front hooves have:

• the angle of the toe wall is flatter than that of the rear ones; is 45-50° relative to the horizontal surface;
• the toe section is longer than the heel wall. The difference is about (2.5-3):1;
• the contour of the edge of the sole is correctly rounded, its widest part is concentrated in the middle;
• the sole is practically not concave and thinner than that of the hind hoof. The average thickness is approximately 10 mm. In the central region its smallest value is observed, and closer to the edge it is maximum;
• The thickness of the sole at the edge in the toe, side and heel areas has a ratio of 4:3:2.

Hind hoof

In almost all characteristics of shape and geometry, differences are observed between the horse’s hind hooves and the front ones:

• The angle of the toe part relative to the horizontal surface is steeper - 55-60°. If this is not observed, then most likely the horse has problems with his front legs or his back hurts;
• the toe section is only 2 times longer than the heel wall;
• the contour of the edge of the sole resembles not a circle, but an oval due to its narrowing, with the widest part offset from the center and located in the rear third of the surface of the sole;
• the sole has a significant concavity and thickness, which allows the hind hooves to better resist mechanical damage. This is why shoeing of the hind legs is most often avoided for riding horses;
• the thickness of the sole at the edge in the toe, lateral and heel areas takes on a ratio of 3:2.5:2;
• The hind hoof is 1.5 mm thicker in the toe wall, and 5 mm in the lateral wall.

Hoof anatomy

A fairly dense horny capsule, as well as the complex structure that lies under it, is usually referred to as “hoof”. This part of the horse's limb consists of several elements, each of which is designed to perform a specific role.

This distinction is largely arbitrary, since all parts are inseparable:

1. Border. Located at the border of the transition of the skin with hair to the horny shoe. It looks like a 5-6 mm wide strip of shiny, relatively soft tubular horn. Serves to produce glaze (the outer layer of the horny wall), bind the hair of the skin and the horny capsule, and also reduce their pressure on each other.
2. Wall. It is the most voluminous part of the hoof and consists of 2 layers: the epidermis and the skin base, which form a protective case for the coffin bone from mechanical damage, simultaneously providing a strong and flexible connection between the horny tissue and the internal ones. The outer surface of the wall is flat and smooth. It consists of a horn with a tubular structure that retains moisture inside the hoof and prevents its excessive entry from the outside. The inner part is covered with horny leaves up to 4 mm high, which are arranged in parallel rows directed from the corolla to the sole and give the hoof strength. The number of such leaves ranges from 500-600 pieces, and their total surface area is about 1 square. m, which allows you to distribute the load on the limbs evenly.
3. Sole. It looks like a concave plate with a wedge-shaped cutout for the arrow. Serves as the main supporting part and protection from external mechanical influences. The composition of the sole is identical to the structure of the wall - the epidermis and the skin base, which is fused with the plantar base of the coffin bone. It has naturally occurring accelerated regeneration and growth.
4. Arrow(finger crumb). It looks like a wedge-shaped formation between the bar walls, located below the level of the sole. The structure is formed by more elastic horny tissue than that of the sole and walls. The arrow contacts the surface with a central groove, which has restrictions on the sides in the form of two ridges. The groove connects at the back with the corners of the wall and forms the heel bulbs.

All of these elements belong to the outer, non-sensitive part of the horse's hoof.

There is one more element worth mentioning. On the side of the external connection of the sole and the wall there is a narrow strip of plastic horny tissue (4 mm), which is called the “white line”. It is extremely important when shoeing animals, as it indicates the location of sensitive parts and determines the thickness of the wall.

Did you know? The front part of the hoof wall can completely regenerate in 10-14 months.

Internal structure

In the internal structure of the hooves there are:

1. Pterygoid cartilages, which are shaped like leaves. Designed to directly attach the hoof to the coffin bone.
2. Sensitive sole- a thin layer of tissue that is tightly attached to the lower border of the coffin bone and serves to nourish it.
3. Sensitive arrow, which has a wedge shape. It rests on a finger-shaped pillow and is necessary for its nutrition. It is located in the recess behind the heels and serves for shock absorption when transferring support to the hoof.
4. Crown ring, intended for feeding the hoof border. Located above the meat whisk.

The blood supply to the hoof comes from the digital artery, which runs along the edges of the deep digital flexor tendon. This artery branches widely, forming an extensive network of vessels.

Hoof mechanism

The change in the configuration of individual sections of the horse's leg during lowering and raising is usually called the “mechanism” of the hoof. It includes actions such as expansion, contraction and rotation.

The complex structure of the hoof allows it to be flexible when hitting the surface, and also has the ability to partially absorb shock. The lion's share of the impact force is transmitted deep to the 3rd phalanx, which, in turn, presses under the body weight to the surface, pressing the frog and the finger crumb.

When the phalanx is lowered down, the sole is pressed against the surface, becomes flatter, and the height of the hoof itself, due to its tubular structure, decreases slightly.

Therefore, the body weight will press even more intensely, continuing to expand the heels, lower the bulbs closer to the surface and spread the lateral cartilages. The corolla narrows, and its anterior edge is pulled back. This mechanism helps reduce shaking.

The shape of the hoof part returns to its original state when the leg is lifted and the load is removed.

Did you know? The horse hits with its hoof with a force of 500-600 kg.

The vascular system of the hoof also works for shock absorption. When the corolla is compressed, the blood in the vessels located underneath it will create a liquid cushion, which is pushed upward with pumping force when the load is removed.

The normal working condition of the hooves serves as an additional circulation pump for the horse's circulatory system, so daily exercise is very important. Prolonged idleness and lack of physical activity can cause stagnation of blood in the limbs and hyperemia of the hoof vessels.

Care

To maintain a horse in a healthy state, it is important to be guided not only by the correct conditions of keeping it in the stall from a hygiene point of view, but also to regularly carry out hoof care measures.

The set of measures includes two main actions – reforging and cleaning. Horses need this care as mandatory, since the hoof completely bears the load of the entire mass of a large animal (and often the rider and harness).

Movement is as important for horses as equal distribution of load across all limbs. Only healthy and well-groomed hooves can guarantee this.

Horses began to be shoed back in the 5th century AD.

Horseshoes may have differed from modern products, but the purposes of their use have not changed since then:

• protect hooves from excessive abrasion when moving on hard surfaces;
• avoid mechanical damage;
• exclude injuries to the internal parts of the horny capsule;
• help maintain balance in slippery areas;
• eliminate orthopedic defects.

The health of the hooves, the specialization of use of the horse, and its breed influence the choice of horseshoes, of which several types are now produced:

• standard, produced in regulated 11 sizes (they are the most common);
• sports, which are made individually for each horse, while not only the sizes are adjusted, but also the weight of the horseshoe itself is reduced, with variations in weight depending on the type of sport (it is horse racing, all-around, long races or trotting);
• studded for the winter version (especially for police horses, as well as for sports races on lawns);
• orthopedic, which in most cases are made without a gap between the branches of the horseshoe to correct the geometry of the hoof and positioning of the legs.

There are often disputes between specialists and breeders over the need to shoe horses’ hooves, or to leave their legs without artificial protection. Horse breeders recommend that animals do not wear horseshoes all the time.

This is explained by the fact that when stepping, a horseshoe restricts blood circulation in the limbs and impairs their proper nutrition. Wearing horseshoes for a long time is fraught with serious leg diseases for the horse. For example, at competitions in closed arenas, horseshoes are often removed, and they are not used at all when walking on pastures.

Horseshoeing is always done by a professional, but by watching how he does it, you can master the basic skills yourself:

1. First, the hooves are washed and cleaned.
2. Having fixed the horse's leg, remove the already used horseshoe using special tongs.
3. The next stage is the removal of excess growth of the stratum corneum and calluses. For this operation, a special hoof knife is used. Possible irregularities are trimmed with a cleaver and polished with a rasp.
4. Next, choose a horseshoe based on the shape and size of the hoof, the characteristics of the soil and the horse’s upcoming tasks. Then they try it on.
5. If the horseshoe fits, a rubber gasket is installed under it and the structure is fixed, nailing it to the stratum corneum. If there is a need for spikes, then they do that too.

Checking that a horse is properly shoed is simple: the animal must step on all legs, not limp or show signs of any discomfort.

Important! A horse with a torn shoe is never used for work or riding.

The time interval between reforgings lasts about 6 weeks. In some animals, the hoof horn grows quickly, then the period for changing horseshoes is reduced to 4-5 weeks. If you hesitate to replace the horseshoes, the stratum corneum can grow significantly, which can lead to a change in the angle of the toe.

The result is overload of the leg ligaments and tendons. Horse breeders recommend that before replacing horseshoes the animal should have the opportunity to rest from them for 2-3 days.

If forging is done by a trained specialist, then the cleaning rules are quite simple and understandable; they are easy to learn and essential for proper horse care.
This preventive measure is necessary not just for beauty, but for the health of the animal:

• getting stuck small stones can cause lameness in the horse;
• the adhesion of manure easily rots and has a negative effect on the corolla, which can lead to a loss of its strength;
• depreciation is reduced by sand getting on the sole;
• cleaning is an excellent measure for the prevention of infections and cracks, which are easier to eliminate at the initial stage;
• If a horse walks on wet ground, the hoof can become damp and cause foot disease.

Animals are taught to clean their hooves from childhood (from 2-3 months), so that in adulthood this procedure can be done without problems. In the process, the regularity of the work performed is important, then the horse gets used to it faster, and your skills are practiced to the point of automaticity.

Important! Before cleaning and lifting the hoof, make sure that the animal is standing firmly and maintains balance on three legs. Never allow your horse to lean against you when grooming.

Cleaning always begins with the front legs. For the procedure, a special tool is used - a hook with a blunt tip. Use a hook to remove stones and large debris from the sole and arrow gutters. More thorough cleaning is done with a brush or soft scraper so as not to damage the protective glazed layer.

When cleaning, you should pay attention to the external condition of the hooves: the formation of cracks or creases, the degree of wear of the horseshoes and their fastening. It is recommended to control the temperature: ideally, it should be the same on all legs. High temperature is a sure sign of incipient inflammation or injury.
Dry brushing is carried out daily for both horses with and without shoes. There is also such a procedure as washing the hooves, which is done somewhat less frequently - only 2-3 times a week. All moisture remaining after washing must be thoroughly dried. Wide hooves have loose horns, so they can be washed even less frequently.

After cleaning, the hooves are lubricated with special ointments to moisturize. At the same time, you should not overdo it with the procedure, otherwise overly moistened hooves will grow too quickly, soften and easily rot. On the other hand, overdried ones lose their elasticity and become too hard.

In damp, humid weather, a thin layer of tar can be applied to the arrows and grooves. Lubrication with any oils and fats is not recommended, as they contribute to the destruction of the glaze.

Horse hooves have a complex structure and therefore require periodic care and attention. The health of the animal and its performance will largely depend on this. If a serious problem is detected, you should immediately contact your veterinarian for help and treatment.

Hoof.

Hoof – ungula – a derivative of the skin transformed at the end of the finger into a hard skin tip. There are 4 anatomical parts on the hoof:

1. hoof border;

2. hoof corolla;

3. hoof wall;

4. hoof sole.

Hoof border– limbus ungulae ( rice. 3 - A ) It looks like a narrow strip, about 0.5 cm, and forms the transition from the hairy skin of the limb to the hairless skin of the hoof. It consists of the epidermis, the base of the skin and the subcutaneous layers.

Epidermis The border (Fig. 3 - 6) consists of the producing and stratum corneum. The horny layer of the border descends towards the sole of the hoof and, covering the wall of the hoof, forms a thin shiny layer - glaze of the hoof wall – stratum vitreum( rice. 3 - 8 ) . The glaze is impervious to water and protects the underlying layers of the hoof from swelling.

Leather base(Fig. 3 - 5) consists of papillary and reticular layers. The papillae are small, 1-2 mm long, descending downwards, which determines the direction of displacement of the horn border.

Subcutaneous layer ( rice. 3 - 4 ) slightly developed.

Rice. 3. Horse hoof structure:

A – hoof border; B – hoof corolla; C – hoof wall; D – hoof sole; 1 – epidermis; 2 – base of the skin; 3 – subcutaneous layer; 4 - subcutaneous layer of the hoof border and 4a - hoof crown; 5 – base of the skin of the hoof border and 5a – hoof crown; 6 – epidermis of the hoof border; 7 – epidermis of the hoof corolla; 8 – glaze of the hoof wall; 9 – tubular horn of the corolla; 10 – leaf horn of the hoof wall; 11 – leaf layer of the base of the skin of the hoof wall; 12 – white line; 13 – stratum corneum of the sole of the hoof; 14 – base of the skin of the hoof sole; 15 – periosteum; 16 – stratum corneum of the frog of the digital crumb; 17 – base of the skin of the frog of the digital crumb; 18 – stratum corneum of the digital cushion; 19 – base of the skin of the finger crumb cushion; 20 – subcutaneous layer of the digital crumb cushion.

Hoof corolla– corona ungulae ( rice. 3 - B ) wide, about 1 - 1.5 cm, located in a semicircle below the hoof border, constituting the proximal edge of the hoof wall. The hoof corolla, like the border, consists of the epidermis, base of the skin and subcutaneous layers.

Epidermis corolla ( rice. 3 - 7 ) consists of the producing and stratum corneum. The stratum corneum is very thick, has a tubular structure, and is the strongest in the hoof. It is almost impermeable to water. The tubular horn descends towards the sole of the hoof, forming the middle layer of the wall of the horny shoe. ( rice. 3 - 9 ) . On the inner surface of the tubular horn of the corolla there is a depression - the coronal groove, to which the coronal ridge corresponds on the basis of the skin.

Skin base ( rice. 3 - 5 ) has papillary and reticular layers. The papillae in this part of the hoof, long (4-5 mm), are lowered down, as a result of which the tubular horn of the corolla moves down.

Subcutaneous layer ( rice. 3 - 4 ) well developed and, together with the base of the skin of the corolla, forms a coronal ridge.

Hoof wall– paries ungulae ( rice. 3 - C ) is the most massive part of the hoof. It makes up the front and side surfaces of the hoof, and partially extends onto its plantar surface. On the hoof wall there is an unpaired toe, paired lateral, heel (turn) parts. ( rice. 4 - 5 ) and heel angles ( rice. 4 - 2 ) .

The hoof wall consists of the epidermis and base of the skin; there is no subcutaneous layer.

Epidermis consists of the producing and stratum corneum. The horn of the hoof wall looks like white leaves - leaf horn –stratum lamellatum ( rice. 3 - 10 ) . Its terminal section, extending onto the sole of the hoof, together with the inner layer of tubular horn, forms the white line of the hoof. ( rice. 3 - 12 ) . By its location, they determine where, when shoeing an animal, the nails must be driven in so that they go into the tubular horn (lateral to the white line), and not into the base of the skin.

The horn of the hoof wall generally has three layers. 1) leaf horn (produced by the epidermis of the hoof wall) - deep layer, 2) tubular horn (produced by the epidermis of the corolla) - middle layer, 3) glaze (produced by the epidermis of the border) - outer layer.

Skin base ( rice. 3 - 11 ) consists of papillary and reticular layers. The papillae are shaped like thin plates, leaflets, which is why this layer is also called the leaflet layer. The leaves run in the direction from the corolla edge to the plantar edge of the hoof wall, i.e. from top to bottom. Between the leaves of the base of the skin of the wall, the horny leaves of the epidermis move in the same direction. The reticular layer of the base of the skin of the wall, due to the absence of the subcutaneous layer, fuses directly with the periosteum of the coffin bone.

Hoof sole– solea ungulae ( rice. 3-D ) - this is the part of the hoof with which the animal rests on the soil. Anatomically, it distinguishes the body of the hoof sole ( rice. 4 – 8a ) and plantar branches ( rice. 4 – 8b ) . The digital crumb is wedged between the plantar branches and is separated from them and the turning parts of the hoof wall by lateral grooves. ( rice. 4 - 6 ) .

The sole of the hoof consists of the epidermis and the base of the skin. ( rice. 3 - 14 ) , the subcutaneous layer is absent. Epidermis produces a thick sole horn ( rice. 3 - 13 ) . On the surface it takes on the appearance of a crumbly mass, which gradually disappears.

The horny layers of all parts of the hoof and digital crumb make up horn shoe . The remaining parts of the epidermis, as well as the bases of the skin and subcutaneous layer of the hoof and digital pulp are not included in the horn shoe.

The hooves of cattle and pigs are similar to the hooves of a horse, divided in half, do not have turning parts, and their soles are weakly expressed.

Rice. 4. Plantar surface of the hoof:

1 – stratum corneum of the crumb cushion; 2 – heel angle; 3 – arrow leg;

4 – interpeduncular groove of the arrow; 5 – bar (calcaneal) wall; 6 – lateral groove of the arrow; 7 – tip of the arrow; 8 – stratum corneum of the sole of the hoof, 8a – body and 8b – branch of the hoof sole; 9 – white line of the hoof; 10 – plantar edge of the hoof wall.

Claw

Claw – unguicula, subdivided into the claw ridge with the claw groove, the corolla, the claw wall and the claw sole. All parts of the claw are built from the epidermis and the base of the skin; the subcutaneous layer is developed only in the area of ​​the claw ridge.

Claw roller- an elevated strip of transition from the dorsal portion of the skin of the finger to the claw. The epidermis and the base of its skin form the claw groove, plunging into a similar groove of the third phalanx. The horny capsule of the claw begins in the claw groove.

Corolla and claw wall located on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the claw.

Claw sole in the form of a narrow strip it forms the distal part of the claw.

Crumbs

Crumbs – pulvini, tori – dense, elastic thickenings of the skin on the palmar (plantar) side of the paw. They serve as a device for resting on the ground and as an organ of touch. The crumbs are built from the epidermis, the base of the skin and the subcutaneous layer.

Epidermis of the crumb - a thick hairless layer with a soft stratum corneum, has many excretory ducts of sweat glands.

Crumb skin base – has high papillae, is well innervated and supplied with blood.

Subcutaneous layer - It is highly developed and somewhat unique: between the coarse bundles of collagen and elastic fibers there are pads of adipose tissue. The result is an elastic and easy-to-support pillow, which serves as the main part of the crumb.

Depending on the location, the crumbs are:

1. carpals, tarsals,

2. metacarpals, metatarsals,

3. finger crumbs.

Carpal crumbs Only dogs and horses have them. In dogs they are located in the area of ​​the accessory carpal bone, in horses they are located on the medial surface of the distal end of the forearm and are called chestnuts.

Tarsal crumbs(chestnuts) are found only in the horse and are located on the medial surface of the distal end of the tarsus.

Metacarpal (metatarsal) crumbs are found in dogs and horses. They are located on the palmar (plantar) surface of the joint area of ​​the 1st phalanx. In a horse, these crumbs are called spurs.

Finger crumbs are present in all animals and are located on each finger. In ungulates, these crumbs are highly developed and covered with a horny tip of the finger.

Horse finger crumb– pulvinus digitalis – has the shape of a triangle forked at the base, wedging its apex into the sole of the hoof. Its back is pillow of crumb ( rice. 5 - 1 ) , and the sharp front part is crumb arrow. The sharp end of the arrow is called the apex of the arrow ( rice. 4 - 7 ) . The ridges protruding from the plantar surface are called frog legs ( rice. 4 - 3 ) , and the depression between them is the interpeduncular groove ( rice. 4 - 4 ) .

From the subcutaneous layer of this crumb the horse develops a pair soft cartilages– cartilago pulvini, covering the sides of the digital crumb, with which they form an original elastic device participating in the shock-absorbing mechanism of the hoof. These cartilages are connected by ligaments to the II and I phalanges and the navicular bone. The cartilages are shaped like a quadrangular plate, which is adjacent to the base of the skin of the lateral and heel sections of the hoof wall.

Horns – cornu- hollow horny formations that developed on the horny processes of the frontal bones of large and small cattle. The horn is divided into root, body and apex. The horn consists of two layers - the epidermis and the base of the skin; the subcutaneous layer is absent.

Epidermis The horn has the same layers as the epidermis of the hoof. Its producing layer produces a very durable tubular horn.

Leather base The horn has papillary and reticular layers. The latter fuses with the periosteum of the horny processes of the frontal bones.

The term "hoof" is used to refer to the dense horny capsule (shoe) and everything that is contained in it. The outer, insensitive part of the hoof consists of: a wall (outer protective layer); soles (plates of hard horny tissue approximately 2 cm thick); arrows (wedge-shaped elastic horny formation); hoof border (thin layer of epidermis connecting the hoof and skin).

(1) - Sock; (2) - Toe wall; (3) - Sole; (4) - Side wall; (5) - Coronet ring; (6) - Heel wall; (7) - Heel; (8) - Arrow; (9) - Angle of the sole; (10) - White line; (11) - Wall;

The function of the sole is to protect the sensitive internal parts of the hoof and provide support for the body. The arrow performs the same functions as the sole, plus it provides traction and absorbs impact. The hoof border controls evaporation from the underlying hoof.

(1) - Metacarpal bone; (2) - Superficial digital flexor tendon; (3) - Long coronoid bone; (4) - Coronet ring; (5) - Pterygoid cartilages; (6) - White line; (7) - Coffin bone; (8) - Horn sole; (9) - Sensitive sole; (10) - Arrow; (11) - Finger cushion; (12) - Finger bone; (13) - Short coronoid bone; (14) - Deep digital flexor tendon;

The inner, meat part of the hoof consists of pterygoid cartilages, a sensitive sole, a sensitive frog, a meat corolla and a coronary ring.

Pterygoid cartilages are leaf-like structures that attach the hoof to the coffin bone. Hundreds of sensory (or primary) cartilages are intertwined with thousands of keratinized (secondary) cartilages growing from the inner surface of the hoof wall.

The sensitive sole, firmly attached to the undersurface of the coffin bone, is a thin layer of tissue that conforms to and nourishes the keratinized sole.

The sensitive arrow nourishes the finger-shaped cushion on which it rests. The frog pad looks like a wedge-shaped fibroelastic pad located in the recess behind the heels. It plays an important role in reducing shock when putting weight on the hoof.

The coronary ring is located above the meat rim and feeds the hoof border. The thickened meat ridge is located above the sensitive ligaments in the coronary groove and nourishes the hoof wall.

On the outer surface of the sole, at the junction with the wall, there is a narrow strip of soft plastic horny tissue, the so-called. white line. This white line is of great importance to the farrier as it marks the location of the sensitive meaty parts of the hoof and shows the thickness of the wall, thereby helping to determine where to drive the horseshoe nails into the hoof wall without hitting sensitive areas.

Since the weight of the horse’s body is distributed unequally across the thoracic and pelvic limbs, the shapes of the front and rear hooves are somewhat different from each other.

The front hoof has the following features:

1. The toe part of the hoof wall is inclined to the ground surface at an angle of 45 - 50°; towards the heel parts the wall gradually becomes steeper; the heel parts are located almost vertically.
2. The toe part of the wall is approximately 2.5 - 3 times longer than the heel part. This ratio should be taken into account when trimming the hoof before shoeing.
3. The contour of the plantar edge of the wall is more rounded than that of the hind hoof; in the front hoof, the widest part of the curve is in its middle.
4. The sole of the front hoof is thinner and less concave than that of the rear hoof. The average thickness of the horny sole is 10 mm. In the central parts (in the area of ​​the top of the frog) the sole has the smallest thickness, and as it approaches the plantar edge it becomes thicker.
5. The thickness of the plantar edge of the toe, lateral and heel parts of the horny wall are in a ratio of 4:3:2.

The hind hoof is characterized by the following data:

1. The toe wall is steeper than that of the front hoof and inclined to the ground at an angle of 55-60°; the heel parts are almost vertical.
2. The toe wall is approximately twice as long as the heel wall.
The contour of the plantar edge of the wall is somewhat narrowed and approaches a semi-oval; the widest part of the curvature is located at the border of the posterior third of the plantar surface.
4. The sole of the hind hoof is thicker and more concave than that of the front hoof. It is less prone to mechanical damage (skin), which is why riding horses in most cases are not shod on their hind legs.
5. The thickness of the plantar edge of the toe, side and heel walls is expressed in the proportion 3:2.5:2, i.e. the heel wall is one and a half times thinner than the toe wall.

The outer wall of both the front and rear hoofs is somewhat thicker and slopes more gently toward the ground than the inner one. The plantar edge of the wall of the lateral side of the hoof is more rounded, while that of the medial side is more straight.

In different areas of the front and rear hoofs, the following ratio of the thickness of the horny wall is established:

1. the toe wall of the rear hoof is thicker than that of the front hoof (the difference reaches 1.5 mm);
2. there is no difference in the thickness of the wall in the toe from the corolla to the sole of both the front and rear hoofs; in the lateral parts this difference reaches 5 mm;
3. the smaller the angle of inclination, the thinner the horny wall;
4. There is no relationship between the thickness of the horn wall and the pigmentation of the horn.

Pulvini are dense, pillow-shaped thickenings of skin on the back surface of the paw. Horses have carpal and tarsal pads (chestnuts), metacarpal and metatarsal pads (spurs), and digital pads.

Chestnut located on the medial surface of the distal end of the forearm and tarsus, spur- on the back surface of the 1st phalanx of the finger and covered with a brush. Chestnuts and spurs are hairless areas of the skin. Consist of epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is thick, highly keratinized, and forms soft keratin. Cattle and pigs only have finger crumbs.

The finger pulps are located on the distal phalanx of each finger. Consist of epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue. The epidermis is highly keratinized, consists of five layers, its thick stratum corneum is formed by a tubular horn. In the dermis there are papillary and reticular layers, many elastic fibers, blood vessels and sweat glands. A large number of nerve endings makes the digital pulp an organ of touch. In the subcutaneous layer, a cushion of crumb is formed from fat accumulations, which acts as a shock absorber. It is especially developed in its posterior part.

In horses, the toe pads have the shape of a triangle forked at the base, wedging its apex into the sole of the hoof. Its rear, more elastic part forms a cushion of the crumb, and its sharp, elastic front part forms a frog with a massive stratum corneum. IN arrow distinguish the apex, legs, interpeduncular groove, and on the inside - the ridge of the arrow. The horse has paired pulpal cartilages fused with the cushion of the pulp. Cartilage performs a spring function. In cattle and pigs, the finger crumbs do not have arrows.

Fig.1. Horse hoof

1 – horny pillow; 2 – medial leg of the arrow; 3 – tip of the arrow; 4 – interpeduncular groove; 5 – lateral groove of the arrow; 6 – plantar edge of the hoof wall; 7 – horny pad of the hoof; 8 – leg of the sole; 9 – collar part of the hoof; 10 – inversion angle of the hoof; 11 – white line of the hoof; 12 – base of the skin of the hoof border; 13 – base of the skin of the hoof corolla; 14 – base of the skin of the hoof wall; 15 – hoof contour.

Hoof– ungula – is divided into the hoof border, hoof corolla, hoof wall and hoof sole. Hoof border– looks like a narrow strip, about 0.5 cm wide. Consists of the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis of the border has all five layers (basal, spinous, granular, lucid and horny). The stratum corneum of the epidermis forms the glaze of the hoof wall. The dermis consists of the papillary and reticular layers and contains many blood vessels. The subcutaneous tissue is slightly developed and passes into the periosteum of the finger.

Hoof corolla– about 1.5 cm wide, located below the hoof border. Consists of the epidermis, dermis and a faint subcutaneous layer. In the epidermis, the germinal zone immediately transitions into the thick stratum corneum, which produces the thick tubular horn of the hoof wall. This horn is very strong, consists of horn tubes in which the cells are tightly adjacent to each other. The tubes are soldered together by an intermediate horn. The tubular horn is pigmented. The dermis is highly developed and hangs in the form of a coronary ridge over the wall of the hoof. A coronary groove is formed from the inside. There are many vessels in the dermis. The subcutaneous tissue passes into the periosteum of the finger.

Hoof wall- the most massive part of the hoof. It distinguishes between an unpaired toe, lateral medial, lateral lateral parts, inversion angles, and plantar edge. It consists of the epidermis and dermis, there is no subcutaneous layer. The epidermis produces a white leaf horn that forms a white line on the sole of the hoof. The white line indicates the boundary beyond which one should not go when shoeing a horse, so as not to damage the living tissue of the finger.

Sole– consists of epidermis and dermis. The epidermis forms a tubular horn. The dermis passes into the periosteum of the third phalanx of the finger. On the sole of the hoof, a body and plantar branches are distinguished, between which a horny digital crumb with an arrow is wedged.

Kopytse– ungulicula – in cattle and pigs it consists of the same parts as in the horse (edge, corolla, wall and sole). However, the body and plantar branches are not distinguished on the sole, and the arrow is missing on the digital crumb.

Thus, horn capsule hooves and hooves have a complex structure. Its wall consists of three layers. The most superficial layer is glaze. It is thin and breaks down quickly. Middle layer – tubular horn. It is the thickest and most durable, and contains pigment that gives it a dark color. Inner layer - leaf horn, does not contain pigment. All layers of the cole horn are clearly visible when trimming hooves or hooves. The horn capsule normally grows at the same rate as it is erased. Metabolic disorders lead to excessive keratinization. Dietary disorders can cause the shoe to slow down and reduce its elasticity. At the same time, grooves appear on the hooves and hooves, and their surface becomes dull and rough.

Horn– cornu – heavily keratinized skin cover of the horny process of the frontal bone of the skull. The horn is divided into root, body and apex. The horn is formed by the epidermis and dermis. The dermis is formed by the papillary and reticular layers. The reticular layer passes into the periosteum of the corneal process. The epidermis produces a strong tubular horn. The horn grows intensively at a young age. In the cold season, with insufficient feeding and during pregnancy, horn growth slows down, which leads to the appearance of rings, noticeable in cattle near the root, and in sheep and goats throughout the horn. The approximate age of a cow can be determined from the horn rings by adding the number 2 to the number of rings.

The structure of the mammary glands

Breast– glandula lactiferae – is a characteristic feature of the class of mammals. It reaches its maximum development in females before the birth of the baby during lactation. In different animal species, milk jellies have different shapes, sizes, location and composition of secreted secretions. They can be located in the form of one pair of hills in the chest area (in elephants, primates and cetaceans), in the groin area between the thighs (in horses and cattle). In omnivores, rodents and carnivores, the mammary glands in the form of isolated separate hills are located on both sides along the linea alba of the abdomen. The mammary gland of farm animals is called the udder.

Udder– uber – large, complex, alveolar-tubular gland. In cattle and horses, the udder is simple, its lobes merge into a single organ located in the groin area between the thighs. In pigs, the udder is multiple, located along the linea alba in the form of 4-8 pairs of milk mounds lying on the ventral surface of the chest and abdomen. Cattle and horses have 4 udder lobes, sheep and goats have 2 lobes. In cattle, each lobe has its own nipple. In horses and pigs, one teat is connected to two lobes.

The surface of the udder adjacent to the abdomen is called base of the udder, the entire mass of the gland is udder body, the ventral part of the organ between the nipples – udder bottom. Caudal folded surface of the udder - milky mirror. Depending on the shape, the udder is cup-shaped, bath-shaped, round, flat and goat-shaped. The ideal shapes for machine milking are bath-shaped and bowl-shaped. According to the position, the udder can be femoral (displaced in the caudal direction) and abdominal (displaced in the cranial direction). The surface of the udder is covered with skin with sweat and sebaceous glands and sparse, delicate hair. Under the skin is superficial fascia, and under it deep fascia. It is a continuation of the yellow abdominal fascia with a large number of elastic fibers. The deep fascia forms suspensory ligament, which divides the udder into left and right halves. Each half consists of two lobes: anterior and posterior. Each lobe has its own system of ducts and its own nipple. The nipple is distinguished base, body And top. There are three types of nipples: cylindrical, conical and teardrop-shaped (pear-shaped). Cylindrical teats are most suitable for machine milking. The skin of the nipples is hairless, there are no sebaceous and sweat glands, but there are many sensitive nerve endings.

Under the deep fascia there is a connective tissue capsule, from which connective tissue partitions - trabeculae - extend deep into the organ. The capsule and trabeculae form the skeleton of the udder or stroma. Elements of the stroma do not perform specific functions, that is, they do not synthesize milk. Blood and lymphatic vessels, milk ducts, nerves pass through the stroma, and accumulations of fat cells are deposited. The glandular part of the udder - parenchyma. It is formed by glandular epithelium, from which the end sections of the mammary gland and the system of excretory ducts are built. Trabeculae penetrate deep into the organ and divide the parenchyma into lobules. Lobules are formed alveolar tubes. The alveolar tube wall is formed by two layers. The inner layer consists of a single-layer cubic or columnar glandular epithelium. Each cell secretes all the components of milk. Secretion droplets are released according to the merocrine or apocrine type of secretion. The outer layer of the alveolar tubes is formed by branched myoepithelial or “basket” cells. They are able to contract and compress the alveolar tubes, which helps to release milk. The udder is penetrated by vessels, which are branches of the external pudendal artery. Capillaries densely entwine each alveolar tube.

From the alveolar tubes milk flows into intralobular excretory ducts. Their diameter is smaller than the alveolar tubes, and the wall is lined with single-layer cubic epithelium. Intralobular excretory ducts unite into interlobular excretory ducts - milk ducts, and these, in turn, merge into wide milk passages, clearly visible to the naked eye. The wall of the mammary ducts is lined with double-layer epithelium. Milk passages open in milk tank. Each lobe of the udder has its own milk tank. It is an irregularly shaped cavity with a volume of up to 100-120 ml. The milk tank opens in teat cistern, which turns into a short nipple canal, opening outwards. The mucous membrane of the nipple canal is formed by stratified squamous epithelium. The wall of the nipple contains smooth muscle tissue. In the area of ​​the nipple canal, the annular muscle layer forms the sphincter of the nipple.

A horse's udder has two milk mounds and two teats. Each nipple is connected to two milk lobes and contains two teat cisterns and two nipple canals. Cattle have four milk mounds and four teats. Each nipple has one teat cistern and one teat canal. Small cattle have two milk mounds, two teats containing one tank and one canal. Pigs have 1-3 cisterns and the same number of channels in each teat.

The influence of the physiological state of the animal on the structure of the udder

The mammary gland reaches its highest functional activity during lactation. At this time, the parenchyma makes up 70-80% of the mass of the gland. The alveolar tubes are closely adjacent to each other, have a wide lumen, high epithelium and delicate connective tissue layers of loose fibrous tissue. By the end of lactation, the size of the alveolar tubes decreases, and the intralobular and interlobular connective tissue layers of fibrous tissue thicken. Clusters of fat cells appear in them. During the dry period, the end sections of the gland collapse, the epithelium becomes low, the connective tissue layers are wide with significant fatty deposits. In old and unproductive animals, the stroma is better developed than the parenchyma. The connective tissue of the stroma is denser than in highly productive animals. In well-fed animals, the stroma increases due to the deposition of fat in the interlobular connective tissue layers and under the skin of the udder.



The historical development of the one-toed horse was first traced by V. O. Kovalevsky on a number of paleontological finds. This is almost the only mammal whose history in a chain of distant generations has been more or less completely restored. The ancient ancestor of domestic horses was an animal with five-toed paws - a phenocode. Historical studies have indicated that in horses, out of five rays of the paw, the third ray gradually became the main support, which, to the detriment of the other four, became more and more powerful, therefore, the type of odd-toed animal was formed.

Later, in the course of evolution, horses' toes were reduced and only the third toe remained out of five.

The hoof consists of bones, tendons, ligaments, elastic crumbs, the base of the skin with blood vessels and nerves passing through it, and an insensitive horny shoe. The coffin bone is the basis of the hoof and determines its shape. On the front legs it is rounded at the front, and on the hind legs it is rounded and pointed. Accordingly, the front hooves are more rounded and wider than the rear hooves.

[

The hoof horn is produced by the surface layer of cells of the base of the skin, which have the shape of papillae and leaflets. The papillae produce a tubular horn, and the leaflets produce a leaflet. The presence of papillae and leaflets significantly increases the area of ​​connection between the horny shoe and the base of the skin and thereby increases its strength. Horny cells constantly die and are renewed, and the horny shoe grows back. The front (toe) part of the hoof wall is completely renewed in 10-14 months, the middle and heel parts faster. Since horn has low thermal conductivity, a hot shoe can be adjusted to the hoof at normal sole thickness without causing burns to the base of the skin.

Hooves come in very different shapes and sizes, depending on hereditary factors and the environment. Breed characteristics play a big role. Heavy horses often have large, wide hooves, while light horses, especially high-blooded horses, often have small, narrow, and sometimes slanted hooves.

The horse's physique, especially the stance of its legs, is reflected in the shape of its hooves. Due to changes in the position of the horse's legs, as well as under the influence of the environment, the shape of the hooves may change throughout the life of the horse.

The conditions in which the foal or young horse grows and the quality of the soil are important for the development of hooves. Wet soil promotes the development of wide hooves; dry and hard soil causes the hooves to become narrower.

[

The shape of the hooves also depends on the nature of the movements performed by the horse during work. Regular training with sufficient load prevents hoof deformation.

Signs of a Healthy Hoof

All parts of the wall of a healthy hoof expand downward. The coronal edge, when viewed from the side, goes from front and top to back and down and, rounding, goes over the crumbs. The plantar edge has no defects and does not rest on the ground throughout its entire length. The surface of the hoof is covered with a thin layer of glaze, smooth and shiny, without cracks or crevices. The horny sole should be concave, without red-blue or yellow spots (traces of naminok). The horny arrow is well developed, has no sharp edges, breaks or cracks. The arrow grooves are wide and deep. The heel angles are not curved. There are no changes (eg, separation) at the linea alba (where the hoof wall meets the sole). The crumbs have a round, regular shape, clearly separated by a groove.

The mechanism of the hoof refers to changes in the configuration of its individual sections (expansion, contraction, rotation) when the foot rests on the ground and then lifts it. At the moment of support, the corolla lowers slightly, the hoof wall in the heel parts expands, and the sole becomes flatter. After the load is removed and the leg is raised, the shape of the hoof is restored.

Rhythmic stress on the base of the hoof skin causes dilation of blood vessels and improved blood supply, and this contributes to better horn growth. Therefore, shoeing should not limit the mechanism of the hoof. The maintenance of the horse's performance depends on hoof care. It includes timely trimming and re-shoeing of hooves. Both shod and unshod horses need skillful, proper care.

To maintain the health of a horse, not only hygienic housing conditions are necessary, but also daily, regular movement. Long periods of standing in the stable and lack of movement lead to hoof deformation. The hooves must be cleaned of dirt every day. Wash your hooves at least 2-3 times a week. After washing, in order to avoid skin diseases (biting bugs), it is necessary to wipe the fetlocks well, especially their back surface.

Wide hooves with soft or loose horn need to be washed less frequently than narrow hooves with dry and hard horn. To prevent rotting, the arrows and grooves are lightly lubricated with tar in wet weather. Lubricating the hooves with various fats, auto scrap, etc. leads to the destruction of the glaze and can cause disease.

Shoing of hooves serves to protect against wear and tear, to treat defective or diseased hooves, and also to correct incorrect leg positioning and gait of horses. The usual reforging time is about six weeks. Horses whose horns grow quickly need to be shoeed more often. If the horseshoe is not replaced in a timely manner, the toe part of the wall will grow too much, the angle of the toe will change, and as a result, overload of the tendons and ligaments will occur. Every day, while cleaning the horse, as well as before and after work, it is necessary to check whether the horseshoes have loosened, whether the ends of the nails bent onto the hoof wall have been bent, whether nails or other foreign objects have gotten into the hooves, and whether the spikes have weakened. For sport horses, it is better to turn out the shoe spikes in the stable. Under no circumstances should you ride a horse whose shoe has come off.

We can say with complete confidence that the hoof is a horse’s working tool, especially if it belongs to the racing breed. Weak or diseased hooves are the reason for a short sporting career and low performance of a horse, so the owner must always pay special attention to their condition and hygiene.

[

From a physiological point of view, the hoof is the ossified tip of a horse's finger, comparable to the claws of predatory animals or human nails. Equestrians most often use the term “hoof” to refer to the keratinized capsule at the end of a horse’s leg.

Externally, the hoof consists of the toe, heel, sole, lateral, heel and toe walls, coronary ring (or crown), frog and angle of the sole. The outer surface of the hoof, i.e. the shoe, due to its ossification, is insensitive to impacts, and thanks to its dense structure, it protects the soft internal layers from damage. At the same time, the stratum corneum absorbs water well, and this is dangerous: if a horse constantly stands on wet bedding soaked in urine, ammonia penetrates the stratum corneum and destroys it.

[

: a – outside; b – on the sagittal (median) section: 1 – toe part; 2 – lateral side wall; 3 – heel part; 4 – corolla area; 5 – three layers of border; 5 – glaze; 6–3 layers of corolla; 6 – tubular horn; 7 – coffin bone; 8 – dermis of the hoof wall; 8 – white leaf horn; 9 – white line; 10 – dermis of the sole; 11 – crumb horn; 12 – dermis of the crumb; 13 – elastic cushion of crumb.

The concave plantar part of the hoof is softer and does not have a stratum corneum. Its function is to provide support and traction with the ground when the horse stands and moves. On the outer surface of the sole, the so-called white line is clearly visible - an arched strip of horny tissue with a lamellar structure. This fabric is soft and insensitive; during forging, nails are driven into it to secure the horseshoe to the hoof. If you “miss” past the white line, you can cause an extremely serious injury to the horse, often, alas, incurable.